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This paper analyses female and male entrepreneurship and the differences between them in Finland. The female self-employment rate is clearly lower than that of male self-employment in Finland. The paper shows that differing behaviour accounts for differing rates of self-employment between females and males. The predicted earnings differential between self-employment and paid employment has a divergent effect on the probabilities of self-employment. For males, it is positive (as expected). For females, it has no effect, which accentuates the other motives they have for self-employment. Both spouse and family are found to have bigger effects on female self-employment than on male self-employment. Yet, personal characteristics are behind entrepreneurship for both sexes. Regional characteristics are more important for male than female self-employment. The analysis is based on a structural probit model and a large register-based data set representing a 7% random sample of all Finns in 2001.
We examine the inter-regional migration of university graduates from 1991 to 2003 in Finland. The results show that time matters: two-years before and during the graduation year the hazard rates of migration increase, and then decrease thereafter. Although university graduates are particularly mobile, we find that most of them do not move from their region of studies within 10 years after graduation. The out-migration, i.e., brain drain, is much higher among graduates in the more peripheral universities than in the growth centers (Helsinki in particular). Migration is also substantially more likely for those studying away from the home region than for those studying at home.
To date, few empirical studies have attempted to highlight the impact of the socio-economic characteristics of older entrepreneurs according to whether they are driven by necessity or opportunity. Tervo and Haapanen contribute to the economics of ageing by showing that opportunity- and necessity-driven senior entrepreneurs differ in terms of socio-economic characteristics. This chapter utilizes a longitudinal data set from Finland. Individuals aged between 55 and 70 entering self-employment are grouped in terms of pull and push motivations. Profiles of entrepreneurs are developed using personal, family, and environmental characteristics. The results show that opportunity-driven older self-employed workers are more likely to be highly educated males, whereas necessity-driven older self-employed workers are often less educated females and individuals who live in rural areas.
Previous research has shown that the local environment is important for self-employment. The dynamics of self-employment varies between areas characterized by different labour market conditions, entrepreneurial traditions and other structural factors. This article analyses self-employment spells in Finland with a large register-based data set from the period 1987 to 2002. The main aim is to investigate the role of region-specific factors as compared with individual-specific and other factors on the duration of self-employment spells. First, the descriptive analysis shows that the exit rates from self-employment and the length of self-employment spells depend upon location (urban versus rural area) and the cyclical trends in the economy. Second, self-employment duration is modelled using discrete time survival analysis. It is found that rural areas have significantly lower exit rates in the first years of self-employment than urban areas.
An interesting yet largely unstudied question regarding labour migration behaviour and residence duration is whether migration becomes more or less likely over time. This paper analyses the determinants of residence duration for Finnish graduates. Our results affirm the importance of cumulative inertia as a determinant of migration. The longer a person stays in a region, the smaller are the hazard rates of migration. However, for those graduates who moved to a new region during their year of graduation, the propensity for repeat migration is particularly high during their first three years of residence.
Uusimaa koki poikkeuksellisesti muuttotappioita koronapandemian aikana. Tutkimme, millä tavoin pandemia muutti Uudenmaan lähtömuuttoa. Hyödynnämme Tilastokeskuksen yksilöaineistoja ja tutkimme logit-mallien avulla, (i) miten yksilöiden ominaisuudet selittävät lähtömuuttoalttiutta ennen koronapandemiaa ja sen aikana sekä (ii) tapahtuiko alueella asuvien muuttokäyttäytymisessä muutoksia pandemian aikana. Uusimaalaisten kasvaneen lähtömuuton taustalla oli ennen kaikkea koronapandemian aikana yleisesti kasvanut muuttohalukkuus Uudellamaalla. Yksittäisistä väestöryhmistä on tunnistettavissa erityisesti nuorten kasvanut lähtömuuttoalttius. Havaitsimme myös muita käyttäytymismuutoksia, joista osa oli lyhytaikaisia ja osa voimistui koronapandemian edetessä.
Perinteisesti kiinteistössä järjestettävien käyttäjäpalvelujen keskiössä on ollut ennen kaikkea kiinteistön omistajan tarpeet. Koska omistaja ei kuitenkaan välttämättä käytä kiinteistöä itse, on huomiota syytä siirtää kiinteistön omistajien tarpeista sen päivittäisten käyttäjien tarpeisiin. Tässä työssä tutkittiin yritysten työntekijöiden tilapalvelutarpeita kahdessa erilaisessa kohteessa. Lisäksi tutkittiin palvelujen onnistuneen toteuttamisen haasteita sekä edellytyksiä. Tarkoituksena oli saada tietoa erilaisissa kiinteistöissä toimivien yritysten työntekijöiden palvelutarpeista ja vertailla tarpeita keskenään. Näitä tietoja pyritään jatkossa hyödyntämään eri kiinteistöjen palveluja suunniteltaessa. Palvelutarveselvitys toteutettiin kyselytutkimuksena. Kyselyn tulosten pohjalta toteutettiin lisäksi haastattelututkimus, jossa haastateltiin tutkimuksen tilanneen manageriyrityksen työntekijöitä. Haastattelujen pohjalta arvioitiin pääasiassa ilmenneiden palvelutarpeiden toteutettavuutta. Tutkimustulosten perusteella työntekijöiden arvostamat palvelut ovat pääasiassa perinteisiä toimitilapalveluja. Näiden lisäksi tutkimuksen avulla tunnistettiin myös uusia palvelutarpeita. Lisäksi tutkimuksesta selvisi, että taustoiltaan erilaisten vastaajien palvelutarpeet erosivat toisistaan. Saatuja tuloksia voidaan hyödyntää tutkittujen pilottikohteiden lisäksi yleisemmin myös muiden manageriyrityksen hallinnoimien kiinteistöjen palveluja suunniteltaessa. Palvelut jaettiin kyselytutkimuslomakkeessa kahteen ryhmään: työn suorittamista helpottaviin ja työssä viihtymistä lisääviin palveluihin. Työn suorittamista helpottavista palveluista tärkeimpinä pidettiin vartiointipalveluja, "Toimitilatalkkaria", langatonta verkkoa, kiinteistön opaskarttaa sekä kulunvalvontapalveluja. Työssä viihtymistä lisäävistä palveluista pidettiin tärkeimpinä puolestaan parkkipaikkoja, ravintolapalveluja, siivouspalveluja, kahvilapalveluja, kokouscateringia, pukeutumis- ja peseytymistiloja sekä kuntosalia. Haastattelujen perusteella suurin ongelma palvelujen tarjoamisessa on se, että vaikka yritykset haluavat lisäpalveluja, eivät ne usein ole valmiita maksamaan niistä. Lisäksi ongelmia palvelujen onnistuneelle toteuttamiselle aiheuttavat kiinteistöjen tekniset rajoitukset sekä kiinteistöpalvelualan ammattitaitoisen työvoiman henkilöstövaje. Palveluntarjoajien ongelmaksi koettiin myös palvelupyyntöjen pitkät vasteajat.
Background and aims Previous studies have shown that prescription opioid use is more common in the socioeconomically disadvantaged communities in the US. This study examined the area and individual‐level determinants of prescription opioid use in Finland during the period 1995‐2016. Design Logistic regression analysis using nationwide data on filled opioid‐related prescriptions dispensed at Finnish pharmacies and covered by the National Health Insurance. Opioid consumption was linked, using personal identification codes, to population‐based data maintained by Statistics Finland, which records individual background and area‐level characteristics. Setting and participants Working‐age population aged between 15 and 64 years in Finland during the periods 1995‐2007 (n = 4 315 409) and 2009‐2016 (n = 4 116 992). Measurements Annual prescription opioid use was measured using defined daily doses (DDD) and whether individuals used opioids during a year. Findings Prescription opioid use increased in Finland from 1995 to 2016 (from less than 1% to 7%), but the increase was explained by the change in the treatment of codeine‐based opioids in the National Health Insurance. The area‐level unemployment rate was positively correlated with the share of opioid users at the municipal level (r = 0.36; p < 0.001). In comparison with being employed, being outside the labour force was associated with increased opioid use in 1995‐2007 (OR 2.22, 95% CI 2.10‐2.36) and non‐codeine opioid use in 2009‐2016 (OR 2.16, 95% CI 2.06‐2.27), but not with codeine opioid use in 2009‐2016. Conclusions Prescription opioid use in Finland appears to be more common among low‐socioeconomic status individuals, similar to the US and the UK.
Background The true prevalence of healthy ageing on a population level is unknown. In this study we aimed to examine the upper limit for the prevalence of healthy ageing, by quantifying the probability of surviving and remaining free of chronic diseases that could impact functioning (ie, healthy survival) across adulthood. We also estimated the prevalence of clinically assessed healthy ageing, and the determinants of healthy survival and healthy ageing. Methods In this longitudinal study, we assessed men and women born in 1934–44 from the Helsinki Birth Cohort Study (Helsinki, Finland; n=13 140). We obtained information on chronic diseases, deaths, and early-to-midlife variables from national registers, databases, and health records for the period Jan 1, 1971, to Dec 31, 2017 (follow-up 951 088 person-years). We also collated data from clinical visits conducted in 2001–04 and 2017–18. Healthy ageing was defined on the basis of clinical data according to six criteria covering chronic diseases, cognitive function, physical performance, depressive symptoms, pain interference, and social functioning. We analysed the probability of healthy survival across adulthood using the Kaplan-Meier method, and the determinants of healthy survival using Cox regression models. We assessed the association of healthy ageing status in 2017–18 (n=813 with available data) with late-midlife factors collected in 2001–04 using age-adjusted logistic regression. Findings The probability of healthy survival was 42·8% (95% CI 41·6–44·0) in men and 40·1% (38·9–41·4) in women at age 65 years, and 22·5% (21·5–23·6%) in men and 24·4% (23·3–25·6) in women at age 75 years. Healthy survival was associated with socioeconomic position in childhood (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], upper-middle class vs manual worker, men: 1·21 [1·11–1·31]; women: 1·15 [95% CI 1·05–1·26]) and years of education (aHR per 1 SD increase, men: 1·12 [1·08–1·16]; women: 1·03 [1·00–1·07]). In men, healthy survival was also associated with lower maternal BMI in late pregnancy (aHR per 1 SD increase 0·93 [0·90–0·96]), and in women, with shorter height at age 7 years (aHR per 1 SD increase 0·95 [0·91–0·99]). Among the 813 individuals with relevant clinical assessment data, 159 (19·6%) met all six criteria for healthy ageing at mean age 76 years (SD 3). In addition to age, we found that nutrition (Alternative Healthy Eating Index, age-adjusted odds ratio [aOR] per 1 point increase 1·03 [1·01–1·05]), former smoker status (vs non-smoker status, aOR 0·68 [0·47–0·98], and use of lipid-lowering medication (vs not used, aOR 0·60 [0·42–0·87]) in late midlife (mean age 61 years [SD 3]) were associated with healthy ageing. Interpretation The probability of healthy survival, as the upper limit for healthy ageing, was less than 50% from age 65 years. The probability of healthy survival and healthy ageing was influenced by several factors across the life course. Promotion of healthy ageing needs to take a life course approach. Funding Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation, Samfundet Folkhälsan, Finska Läkaresällskapet, Medicinska Understödsföreningen Liv och Hälsa, European Commission Seventh Framework Programme, EU Horizon 2020, and the Academy of Finland.